Bill K. Cantrell

Reviews the book 'Non-manipulative Selling,' by Anthony J. Alessandra, Phillip S. Wexler and Jerry D. Deen.

NONMANIPULATIVE SELLING Book

Effective long-term learning is rarely achieved by a one-off event, but designers all too often think of one-off events when building training solutions. However, as soon as the event ends, forgetting is likely to begin. It is an unfortunate fact, first spotted by Ebbinghaus in 1885, that we have not only a “learning curve” (where people take time to learn in the first place), but also a “forgetting curve” (where we lose what we learn if we don’t use it regularly). Effective learning strategies should therefore not only help people learn as quickly and efficiently as possible, but also minimize forgetting.  What can we do? Just-in-time performance support is one answer to this problem. If you learn something just before you need to use it, then there is no time to forget. However, most people can’t learn everything they need just before they need it; sometimes having to stop and look things up slows us down too much, or safety requires that we master and memorize information. Enter a Spaced Learning ApproachClearly, we need another approach to complement just–in-time learning. Something that will help us learn and that will minimize what we forget. Spacing learning over time might just be that approach. There is a body of research that suggests that spacing learning over time helps people learn more quickly and remember better. It has been found to be effective in various domains, from sales training to language learning to medicine (Caple, 1997; Castel, Logan, Haber, & Viehman, 2012; Grote, 1995; Kerfoot et al., 2007; Lambert, 2009; Landauer & Ross, 1977; Lehmann-Willenbrock & Kauffeld, 2010; Toppino & Cohen, 2010). What does this mean in practice? If you are designing a learning program with spacing in mind, you will present learners with a concept or learning objective, allow a period of time to pass (days, weeks, or months) and then present the same concept again. This might involve a few repetitions, or many, depending on how complex the content is. Similarly, the intervals between repetitions might be adjusted depending on the content and the audience. Will Thalheimer’s research (see the list of links at the end of this blog) gives some useful pointers about the effect of using longer or shorter intervals. Repeating the concept might mean simply re-introducing that concept exactly as it was presented earlier or presenting it in a slightly different way. For example, concepts might be presented using a variety of different media, stories, and so forth. They might also involve delivery of a selection of similar but distinct practice exercises, or simulations delivered over time. Designers using the spaced approach need to settle on several different ways to present the same point, rather than thinking about the single best way, as we might for a more traditional e-learning course or face-to-face session. Designers also need to get even better at tightly defining learning objectives—as each one will need a lot of work and interpretation, there may be little room for ‘nice to have’ information!When should you consider spaced learning? Sometimes a spaced approach will be appropriate as follow-up to a one-off event to minimize forgetting after that event. At other times, perhaps in conjunction with performance support, it may be possible to design an entire solution using this approach. Designing learning so that activities can be tackled in short bursts, spaced over time, may not only help learners remember over time but also reduce the need for large blocks of time away from the workplace to learn in the first place. It is likely to be particularly helpful for busy learners on the go, who can use mobile devices to access spaced learning in short bursts of ‘found time’.It is worth noting that marketing campaigns have long known the importance of spacing repetition of key messages. They set out to create a ‘persuasive’ effect through a cultivation of familiarity which is achieved through repetition. Perhaps it is time for learning to take a lesson from marketing in spacing out material.Additional Resources http://willthalheimer.typepad.com/files/spacing\\\_learning\\\_over\\\_time\\\_2006.pdfhttp://rlugbill.typepad.com/my-blog/2012/12/spaced-practice-versus-massed-practice.htmlhttp://donaldclarkplanb.blogspot.co.uk/2014/09/spaced-practice-8-practical-ways-to.htmlhttp://lifeinthefastlane.com/learning-by-spaced-repetition>http://www.mempowered.com/strategies/spacingReferencesCaple, C. (1997). The effects of spaced practice and spaced review on recall and retention using computer-assisted instruction. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences & Engineering, 57, 6603.Castel, A. D., Logan, J. M., Haber, S., & Viehman, E. J. (2012). Metacognition and the spacing effect: the role of repetition, feedback, and instruction on judgments of learning for massed and spaced rehearsal. Metacognition and Learning. doi:10.1007/s11409-012-9090-3Grote, M. (1995). The Effect of Massed Versus Spaced Practice on Retention and Problem-Solving in High School Physics. he Ohio Journal of Science, 95, 243–247. Retrieved from papers://3a07567f-5013-4eec-86cd-a5ef539fd065/Paper/p4355Kerfoot, B. P., Baker, H. E., Koch, M. O., Connelly, D., Joseph, D. B., & Ritchey, M. L. (2007). Randomized, controlled trial of spaced education to urology residents in the United States and Canada. The Journal of Urology, 177, 1481–1487. doi:10.1016/j.juro.2006.11.074Lambert, C. (2009). “Spaced education” improves learning. Harvard Magazine. Retrieved from http://harvardmagazine.com/2009/11/spaced-education-boosts-learningLandauer, T. K., & Ross, B. H. (1977). Can simple instructions to use spaced practice improve ability to remember a fact? An experimental test using telephone numbers. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 10, 215–218.Lehmann-Willenbrock, N., & Kauffeld, S. (2010). Sales training: effects of spaced practice on training transfer. Journal of European Industrial Training. doi:10.1108/03090591011010299Toppino, T. C., & Cohen, M. S. (2010). Metacognitive control and spaced practice: clarifying what people do and why. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 36, 1480–1491. doi:10.1037/a0020949

Spaced Learning: An Approach to Minimize the Forgetting Curve

What does it mean to “show up?” In a learning context, being physically present is not enough; instead, showing up to learn means that you must be mentally present and available to engage during the session. In a learning context, the difference between attendance and participation is key.Research shows mixed findings when it comes to how attending a lesson relates to students’ performance in a course, as measured by knowledge retention. Some studies show that the more classes a student attends, the better they perform in the course (see References 1-3). Other studies show a more modest correlation between attendance and achievement in a course (see References 4-6). Additionally, some studies also found that there wasn’t a meaningful correlation between attendance and knowledge retention (see References 7-9).Our research shows that the quality of students’ participation, as reflected by their participation grades, were predictive of their grades on a final cumulative exam (see References 10). Attendance, on the other hand, was not predictive of exam performance when participation was controlled for. This is why we say above that it is not enough just to be physically present. You have to do something to be engaged with the session.We investigated the relation between students’ participation and overall success (final grade) in a blended course, with the delivery consisting of in-person and online components (see References 11). Consistent with our findings for courses delivered in person, we found that students’ participation grades predicted their overall grades in the courses. We also found that students’ participation grades were predictive of their grades on different types of course assignments that they completed independently, specifically for their performance on tests, written work, and oral assignments. Although students’ participation was predictive of the work they completed independently, it was not predictive of the oral work that they completed in a group.Overall, our research demonstrates that across various learning contexts (such as online and in-person), connecting with the content is critical for effective learning. For this reason, it is important to let those who attend the lesson or training session know that their level of engagement affects their learning and knowledge retention and that it is in their control to make an effort to connect with the material. We’ve included a list of active learning strategies that we have found effective for promoting engagement and participation in different learning contexts.Recommendations for Encouraging ParticipationDiscussions: The leader of the session is not the only holder of knowledge. Learners are more likely to engage critically with content if they discuss it with their peers. The process of articulating a thought and of explaining idea to someone else passes the idea, the thought is constructed and the memory formed as part of the process of speaking.Case Studies: Learning is more effective if the learner can apply what is learned to a concrete example. Case studies can be used in myriad of ways, including to provide context and practical examples.Peer Review: Feedback can be provided by the instructor but is useful from peers as well. For example, ask learners to summarize a concept as haiku or a diagram then critique each other’s versions. The discussions that this provokes settle understanding and highlights misconceptions.Think, Pair, Share: Give learners time to process new information or ideas. Ask them first to consider a response individually (think), then share their ideas with one other person (pair) and finally share as a group. It is not necessary to hear from every pair, the process will expose misconceptions while cementing learning for the group regardless of whether all speak or not.Game-Based Learning: Turning a lesson into a game can make the experience more enjoyable as it appeals to some learners’ competitive natures.Pass the Chalk: Use this to give learners control over who speaks next. As each learner finishes making their point, they pass on the chalk, or any other chosen item, to the next speaker of their choice. This ensures that learners stay focused because they won’t know if they will be asked to speak next.Chain Notes: Write a question on the outside of an envelope containing an index card. A learner writes their response on the index card, replaces it in the envelope and passes on to the next learner, who does the same. With multiple envelopes (and questions) circulating in the class the learners become absorbed in formulating their own answers having considered those of their peers.Board Rotation: A form of this is also known as “World Cafe.” Learners sit in groups at a table with a portable white board. They write on the board in response to a prompt provided by the instructor. The boards are then rotated to another table, where learners add to the board following a second prompt from the instructor. This can be repeated several times, and can be most effective when the board ends up back with the first group of learners.Additional Resourcesusf.edu/atle/documents/handout-interactive-techniques.pdfqueensu.ca/teachingandlearning/modules/active/12\_exmples\_of\_active\_learning\_activities.htmlReferences1. Andrietti, V. (2014). Does lecture attendance affect academic performance? Panel dataevidence for introductory macroeconomics. International Review of EconomicsEducation, 15, 1–16.2. Credé, M., Roch, S. G., & Kieszczynka, U. M. (2010). Class attendance in college: Ameta-analytic review of the relationship of class attendance with grades and studentcharacteristics. Review of Educational Research, 80(2), 272–295.3. Deane, R. P., & Murphy, D. J. (2013). Student attendance and academic performance inundergraduate obstetrics/gynecology clinical rotations. Journal of the AmericanMedical Association, 310(21), 2282–2288.4. El Tantawi, M. M. A. (2009). Factors affecting postgraduate dental students’ performance in a biostatistics and research design course. Journal of Dental Education,73, 614–623.5. Horton, D. M., Wiederman, S. D., & Saint, D. A. (2012). Assessment outcome is weaklycorrelated with lecture attendance: Influence of learning style and use of alternative materials. Advances in Physiology Education, 36, 108–115.6. Thatcher, A., Fridjhon, P., Cockcroft, K. (2007). The relationship between lectureattendance and academic performance in an undergraduate psychology class. South African Journal of Psychology, 37(3), 656-660.7. Eisen, D. B., Schupp, C. W., Isseroff, R. R., Ibrahimi, O. A., Ledo, L., & Armstrong, A.W. (2015). Does class attendance matter? Results from a second- year medical school dermatology cohort study. International Journal of Dermatology, 54(7), 807–816.8. Hammen, C. S., & Kelland, J. L. (1994). Attendance and grades in a human physiologycourse. Advances in Physiology Education, 267, 105–108.9. McConnell, C. R., & Lamphear C. (1969). Teaching principles of economics withoutlectures. Journal of Economic Education, 1, 20–32.10. Kim, A. S. N., Shakory, S., Azad, A., Popovic, C., & Park, L. (2019). Understanding theimpact of attendance and participation on academic achievement. Scholarship of Teaching and Learning in Psychology. Advance online publication.11. Kim, A.S.N., Nairn, B.C., Popovic, C., Carozza, L., & Balidio, E.C. (2021). Participationis predictive of individual, but not group, work in the context of a blended general education course. Canadian Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning. https://doi.org/10.5206/cjsotl-rcacea.2020.3.8336

Bill K. Cantrell

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